Linking words — cause, contrast & sequence
because of / as for cause, however / in spite of for contrast, and sequencing words, using Unit 22 words.
Some linking words connect to a noun (because of the delay), and some connect to a clause (as it was raining). Getting this right — and the comma that goes with it — is the main skill in this unit.
A — How it works
Cause words: because of / owing to + noun; as + clause. Contrast words: in spite of + noun/-ing; though / however + clause. Sentence-initial linkers (However, In spite of, In conclusion) take a comma right after them.
1) Cause — because of / owing to + noun, as + clause
because of and owing to are followed by a noun, not a full clause.
- We stayed inside because of the delay.
- Owing to the delay, the meeting was moved to Friday.
- As the delay was so long, we cancelled the trip.
- As a result, the whole schedule changed.
2) Contrast — however / though / in spite of
however starts a new sentence with a comma; though usually sits at the end; in spite of takes a noun or -ing.
- I have a lot of experience. However, I still felt nervous.
- I felt nervous. I did well, though.
- In spite of my experience, I still felt nervous.
- On the other hand, the interviewer was very friendly.
3) Sequence & summary
then/next, afterwards and in the end order events; in conclusion / on the whole summarise.
- First we had the interview. Then/Next we had lunch together.
- Afterwards, I felt much more confident.
- Meanwhile, the other candidates were waiting outside.
- On the whole, it was a positive experience.
4) Common mistakes
Do not follow because of / in spite of with a full clause.
- ✗ Because of it was raining. ✓ Because of the rain. / As it was raining.
- ✗ In spite of it was expensive. ✓ In spite of the price. / Though it was expensive.
- ✓ However, — needs a comma after it when it starts a sentence.
The rest of this lesson is in the General English course:
- B — Quick reference
- Remember
Try it: Choose the correct linking word
Select the best option.
- ___ the heavy rain, the match was cancelled.
(a) Because of (b) As (c) Though - ___ it was raining heavily, we stayed inside.
(a) Because of (b) As (c) In spite of - I felt nervous. I did well, ___.
(a) however (b) though (c) because of - ___ my experience, I still felt nervous before the interview.
(a) In spite of (b) As (c) Because of - I have a lot of experience. ___, I still felt nervous.
(a) However (b) Because of (c) Owing to - ___ the delay, our flight left three hours late.
(a) As (b) Owing to (c) Though
Check your answers in the course — it marks them instantly. This is one of the unit's 4 exercises; the other 3 are in the General English course too.
Practise this unit in the course →